Introduction

　The purpose of this paper is to analyze the scholarly contributions of ACCS members. The analysis focuses on the research relating to Chinese culture and people. Data for the analysis mainly rely on publications and papers presented at NCA annual conferences by ACCS members between 1990 and 2005. The results of the analysis indicate that four categories can be classified, which characterize the nature and content of ACCS members' research on the Chinese: (1) the challenge of Western theories from the perspective of traditional Chinese philosophical thoughts, (2) the study of Chinese culturebound concepts, (3) the sojourner's experience in a foreign land, and (4) the reflection of communication studies in Chinese societies. Discussion and future directions of ACCS scholarship are as well provided.

　Established in 1991 in US, the Association for Chinese Communication Studies (ACCS) has been actively involving in communication education and research since then1. As specified in its constitution (Article I, Section 2. See ACCS web site: http://www.uni.edu/comstudy/ACCS/), "The basic purpose of the Association is to promote Chinese communication studies." The statement shows the inclusive nature of ACCS, which encourages and welcomes any persons, including students, scholars, educators, and practitioners, who are interested in studying Chinese communication behaviors to become its member. The diversity and inclusiveness of ACCS membership can be shown by its more than one fourth nonChinese descendent members (G. Chen, 2001a).

　In addition to the promotion of its newsletter and two networks, i.e., Idline and ACCS listserv, the affiliation with the National Communication Association (NCA) in 1996 was a turning point for ACCS to consolidate and publicize its members' research efforts from the perspective of Chinese culture. The annual ACCS activities normally include publication, teaching and recruitment, socioemotional support to members, conference planning, business meeting, and annual dinner gathering. The purpose of this paper is to report the scholarly contributions of ACCS members, focusing on the communication studies from the perspective of Chinese culture.

Method

　The report is based on the analysis of ACCS members' research relating to Chinese culture and people. Data for the analysis mainly rely on papers presented at NCA annual conferences by ACCS members between 1990 and 2005 and their publications. ACCS sponsored averagely 7 panels in the annual conference of NCA, each panel contains four papers, thus between 1990 and 2005 ACCS sponsored about 77 panels, which have about 308 papers in total (ACCS Newsletter, 19902005; NCA Convention Program, 19962005). Many of the papers were converted to journal articles, book chapters, or extended to become a book. In the process of analysis, the recurring themes of data in this study were identified. 

Results and Interpretations

　The results of the analysis indicated that four categories or recurring themes could be classified, which characterize the nature and content of ACCS members' research on communication from the perspective of Chinese culture: (1) the challenge of Western theories from the traditional Chinese philosophical thoughts, (2) the study of Chinese culturebound concepts, (3) the sojourner's experience in a foreign land, and (4) the reflection of communication studies in Chinese societies.

The Challenge of Western Theories

　The analysis showed that because a large percentage of ACCS members are Chinese descendants from Hong Kong, P.R. China, Taiwan, and other areas, after being trained in American academia, they began to question the suitability and applicability of Western theories in explaining Chinese communication behaviors. The quest led a group of ACCS members to challenge the Western theories by proposing alternative models originated from traditional Chinese philosophical thoughts. The alternative Chinese models reflect three aspects.

　First, the principles stipulated in the Book of Changes (I Ching) were applied to explain communication behaviors. For example, Xiao (2006) treated I Ching as a Chinese cultural discourse. Chen and Starosta (2005) used the dynamic nature of tai chi to develop a model of human communication that "emphasizes the holistic orientation to human communication that represents a structure of dynamic and dialectical balance between the interactants" (p. 25). G. Chen (1998) used the eight hexagrams of I Ching to explain the Chinese way of relationship development, which is based on "the principle of harmony that represents a structure of dynamic balance between the two parties" (p. 50). Holt and Chang (1992) used the metaphors from I Ching to teach small group discussion.

　Moreover, G. Chen (2004) attempted to identify "various changeoriented patterns of expressions that contribute to constructing the deeply ingrained change discourses in Chinese intellectual tradition" by demystifying the concept of change (bian) embedded in I Ching, which can be used to understand the dynamic nature of human communication.

　Second, the concept of "qi" (vital force) was used to explain Chinese communication behaviors. For example, Chung and Busby (2002) analyzed naming strategies for organizational communication from the chishih perspective. Chung, Hara, Yang, and Ryu (2003) compared the concept of qi in East Asian countries, and tried to develop a communication theory based on the concept. Chung (2004) further treated yin and yang as the basis of qi for personal cultivation and influence the interactant in the process of communication.

　Finally, the philosophical thoughts from different traditional schools were employed to construct a Chinese model of human communication. For example, Chen and Chung's (1994, 1997) framework stipulated the Confucian influence on management/leadership and organizational communication. They argued that Asian Five Dragons' acceptance of Confucian teachings shapes a humanoriented workforce, in which the communication cost is reduced and a greater organizational effectiveness is generated. Others examine human communication from Buddhist, legalist, or Taoistic Buddhist perspective (e.g., Chuang & Chen, 2003; Combs, 2000; Crawford, 1996, Lu, 1994).

The Study of Chinese Culturebound Concepts

　In addition to challenging Western theories via the process of model building, another group of ACCS members dug into the core of Chinese cultural values to explore the unique way of Chinese communication. Those concepts embedded in Chinese cultural values studied by ACCS members include bao (reciprocity), guanxi (interrelation), he xie (harmony), keqi (politeness), mianzi (face), seniority, and zhong (e.g., Chen & Chung, 2002; Feng, 2004; Holt & Chang, 2004; Hwang, 1987; Jia, 2001;  Xiao, 2002). The folk practice loaded with Chinese cultural values, such as feng shui (the art of space arrangement), yuan (predestined relation), and zhan bu (divination) were also explored (e.g., Chang, Holt, & Lin, 2004; G. Chen, 2004; Chuang, 2004).

　Yu (19978) even explored the concept of maodun in the process of Chinese conflict management, and many studies dealt with the Chinese language or communication expression or compared between Chinese and Americans (e.g., Sun & Starosta, 2001; Xia, 2006).Moreover, communication competence, conflict management, interpersonal relationship or friendship, family communication, health communication, and corporate communication from the Chinese perspective were explored (e.g., G. Chen, 1993; Liu, Chen, & Liu, 2006; Ma & Chuang, 2002; Yu, 2002; Zhong, 2005).

　Among these core concepts of Chinese cultural values, guanxi and mianzi were the two most commonly studied ones. For example, G. Chen (2001b) used the two concepts to analyze the standoff between the United States and People's Republic of China on the spy plane incident in 2001, and pointed out that guanxi and mianzi are the gateway for Westerners to understand the Chinese behaviors in different levels of social interaction.  

　However, to the Chinese the exercise of guanxi and mianzi is dictated by the belief on harmony (he xie). As G. Chen (2001c) indicated, harmony is the cardinal value of Chinese culture. The Chinese believe that only through harmony can all things be nourished and flourish under heaven, the purpose of human interaction is then to develop and keep a harmonious relationship in the process of mutual dependency among people. As the end rather than the means of human interaction, harmony is the axis of the wheel of Chinese behaviors, which is supported by two spokes, i.e., guanxi and mianzi. 

　The importance of harmony in the Chinese culture led G. Chen (2001c) to further develop a harmony theory of Chinese communication. G. Chen argued that we can assume that Chinese communication aims to reach a harmonious state of human relationship, hence, an increase in the ability to achieve harmony in Chinese communication will increase the degree of communication competence. G. Chen then proposed three sets of guidelines by which one can achieve harmony or competence in the process of Chinese communication:  

　1. Intrinsically, individuals must be able to internalize three principles: jen (humanism), yi (righteousness), and li (rite).

　2. Extrinsically, individuals must be able to accommodate three components: shih (temporal contingencies), wei (spatial contingencies), and ji (the first imperceptible beginning of movement).

　3. Strategically, individuals must be able to exercise three behavioral skills: guanxi (interrelation), mientz (face), and power. (p. 58)

The Sojourner's Experience in the Foreign Land

　As a sojourner in US, ACCS members must face the challenge of cultural differences in the process of adjustment. The psychological impact due to cultural differences requires ACCS members not only to deal with their professional motivation and goal, but to cope with the possible reconstruction of their cultural identity. Representative studies in this line of research include teaching with a Chinese accent and different cultural background in college or issues of bicultural education (e.g., G. Chen, 2005; Lum, 2006), the adaptation process of Chinese students, scholars, and immigrants in US (e.g., L. Chen, 1997; Ma, 2000; Sun & Chen, 1999), and issues regarding Chinese immigrants or media in the United States (e.g., Yin, 2005). All these aspects of ACCS members' sojourning experience in academic or outside environment are inevitably related to the searching for cultural and sometimes personal identity.

　The analysis showed that most studies in this category were teaching and learning related, and the results of the studies from different ACCS members tended to be consistent. For example, The three recurring themes, including cultural difference, linguistic level of understanding, and relationship development, found in G. Chen's study (2005) that account for the problems foreign instructors encountered in the US college were similar to Sun and Chen's (1999) study on the problems Chinese students experienced in the process of sojourning, that include language ability, cultural awareness, and academic achievements. 

The Reflection of Communication Studies in Chinese Societies

　Finally, ACCS members' selfexamination of the development of communication discipline in their mother land is instigated by the contact with Western scholarship, the conscience of Chinese intellectuals, and the impact of globalization trend. Several ACCS members were highly critical in pointing out, for example, the problems of communication study and the inappropriateness of transplanting Western theories to solve the indigenous problems in Chinese societies (e.g., Cai, 2005; G. Chen, in press). While being critical in the process of selfreflection of Chinese practice, these authors have been making every endeavor to propose possible solutions from the Chinese cultural perspective.

　As G. Chen (2002) pointed out, the four most common problems communication studies in Chinese societies were incomplete landscape of the discipline, overemphasis of skills, lack of collaboration among scholars, departments, and universities, and extreme Westernization. In addition, other ACCS members explore communications studies in Chinese societies from different aspects. For example, Lee (1998) examined the status of Chinese women and the footbinding discourse from the feminism perspective. Xiao (2005) investigated the Chinese intellectual rhetoric when the East met the West in late 19th and early 20th century from the perspective of dialectical interaction of confrontation, rejection, acceptance. Both Lee's and Xiao's studies provided a new way to see Chinese culture. 

　In addition, Heisey's (2006) rhetorical analysis of Chinese political leaders showed a promising direction of Chinese communication study, and others studied communication related issues in social and political context (e.g., Huang, 2006; Kluver, 2002; Lu, 2001; Zhang, 2000). Chinese media related issues as well a common topic studied by ACCS members (e.g., Yin, 2006). Moreover, to put Chinese communication under the study of Asiacentric communication paradigm is another new direction that is worth mentioning (e.g., G. Chen, 2006; Chen & Miike, 2006; Chen & Starosta, 2003; Miike, 2006).

　The scholarly contribution of ACCS members in the above categories is well reflected in the texts authored or edited by some of the members.2

Discussion and Future of ACCS Scholarship

　An overall observation of the four categories of ACCS members' research on Chinese communication found that, comparing to the communication studies in Chinese societies, e.g., Hong Kong, Mainland China, and Taiwan, their research is able to extend to different levels of human communication study, including interpersonal, organizational, public, mass, and intercultural/international communication (G. Chen, 2003), rather than reflects the problem of overemphasizing mass communication education and research in Chinese societies. Although the information used for the analysis in this study was not comprehensive, the results did draw a picture that can be used to understand the landscape of ACCS members' study on the Chinese in the last 15 years.

　The four categories also reflect the pushing and pulling between Eastern and Western cultures, which also mirror the ambivalent experience of Chinese intellectuals in a foreign land. Fortunately, we are witnessing the efforts of ACCS members in withholding their cultural identity by exploring the Chinese cultural traditions, while at the same time, trying to integrate or balance between the culture they are sojourning and the culture they were from. 

　As for the future of ACCS scholarship, two directions can be suggested: (1) The collaboration of ACCS with other Chinese Communication Associations, and (2) facing the Challenge of Globalization.

　First, over the years, more and more scholarly associations regarding Chinese communication study have been established in Chinese societies and overseas. Two prominent ones include Chinese Communication Association (CCA) and Chinese Communication Society (CCS). CCA was established during the 1990 AEJMC annual convention in the United Stated (URL: http://www.cca1.org). CCA has been officially affiliated with AEJMC, ICA, and NCA. Members of CCA are very active in research and spread over different corners of the world. Many CCA members focus on the study of Chinese media and have made significant contributions t0 the literature of mass communication. CCS was established in 1996 in Taiwan (URL: http://ccs.nccu.edu.tw). Its annual conferences over the last ten years have benefited communication scholars from Chinese societies and overseas. Its website provides abundant information on communication education and research.

　In addition to these associations, more and more communication association, e.g., Chinese Association of Communication (CAC) and Chinese Association of Intercultural Communication (CAIC), have appeared in Mainland China due to the open door policy and rapid economic development. Their influence on setting the agenda of communication study in Mainland China is enormous. 

　With their common foundation on the Chinese culture and their distinctive emphasis on different aspects of human communication, it is important for these domestic and overseas associations to collaborate in order to provide a better service to the Chinese communication community and together develop a more visible field of Chinese communication study, and through which to project its contribution to the global society. 

　Second, ACCS, and other Chinese communication associations, has to face the challenge the challenge of globalization. We are living in a globalizing society. The trend of globalization caused by the push of technology development has influenced every aspect of our life, it has blurred the boundaries of time, space, and cultural and social assumptions. In order to ride the wave of globalization and play a key role in the globalizing society, ACCS and other associations have to foster four abilities (G. Chen, 2002):

　1. To expand their perspective to a global picture so that a global mindset can be cultivated. Thus, members can scan the world in a broader perspective and always consciously expect new trends and opportunities. 

　2. To be knowledgeable enough to balance the contradictions of globalization. In other words, to be able to appropriately deal with the pushing and pulling between the two forces of globalization, i.e., localization and globalization, or cultural identity and cultural diversity.

　3.  To be flexible enough to flow with and manage changes on the personal and professional levels due to the impact of globalization. Only through flexibility can people demonstrate the abilities of accuracy and adaptability in a rapid changing environment, by seeing the uncertainty caused by the change of globalization and the opportunity for moving forward.

　4. To be sensitive and open enough to value diversity for continuous improvement. Sensitivity and openness bring people from different cultures together in every level of communication and help them deal with cultural differences. 

　In conclusion, as an overseas association, ACCS has been actively involved in research and education in the discipline of human communication. The contribution of ACCS members in the study of communication from the perspective of Chinese culture is highly significant. How to collaborate with other Chinese communication associations and face the challenge of globalization will be the key to success for ACCS to continue to promote Chinese communication study in this global age. 

Notes.

1. 　Details of the establishmet of ACCS can be seen in the following reports:

Hao Luo Wei (1991a). Studying communication from the Chinese perspective. News Mirror Weekly, No. 132, p. 67.

Hao Luo Wei (1991b). Studying communication from the Chinese perspective. News Mirror Weekly, No. 132, p. 2223.

Jing Shi Dun (1991a).  A report of formation of Association for Chinese Communication Studies.  News Mirror Weekly, No. 132, p. 3. 

Jing Shi Dun (1991b).  A Chinese perspective of conflict management and resolution: A panel report.  News Mirror Weekly, No. 133, p. 39. 

2. 　Books published by ACCS members regarding Chinese communication:

Chen, G. M. (Ed.). (1997/1998). Chinese conflict management and resolution ［Special issue］. Intercultural Communication Studies, 7(1), 1168. 

Chen, G.M. (Ed.). (1997/1998). Chinese conflict management in intercultural context ［Special issue］. Intercultural Communication Studies, 9(2), 1175. 

Chen, G. M. (Ed.). (2002). Culture and communication: An East Asian perspective ［Special issue］. Intercultural Communication Studies, 11(1), 1171. 

Chen, G. M. (2003). An introduction to intercultural communication (in Chinese). Taipei, Taiwan: WuNan.

Chen, G. M. (2004) (Ed.). Theories and principles of Chinese communication (in Chinese). Taipei, Taiwan: WuNan.

Chen, G. M., & Ma, R. (Eds.). (2002). Chinese conflict management and resolution. Westport, CT: Ablex.

Chen, G. M., & Starosta, W. J. (Eds.) (2000). Communication and global society. New York: Peter Lang.

Chen, G. M., & Starosta, W. J. (2005). Foundations of intercultural communication. Lanham, MD: University of Press of America. 

Chen, G. M., & Miike, Y. (Eds.) (2003).  Asian approaches to human communication. A special issue of Intercultural Communication Studies, 12(4), 1218.

Combs, S. C. (2005). The Dao of rhetoric. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Heisey, D. R. (Ed.). (2000). Chinese perspectives in rhetoric and communication. Stamford, CT: Ablex. 

Heisey, D. R., & Gong, W. (Eds.) (1998). Communication and Culture: China and the World Entering the 21st Century. Amsterdam: Rodopi.

Huang, S. (1996). To rebel is justified: A rhetorical study of China's Cultural Revolution Movement, 19661969. Lanham, MD: University of Press of America.

Jia, W. (2001). The remaking of the Chinese character and identity in the 21st century: The Chinese face practices. Westport, CT: Ablex. 

Jia, W., Lu, X., & Heisey, D. R. (Eds.) (2002). Chinese communication theory and research: Reflections, new frontiers, and new directions. Westport, CT: Ablex.

Kluver, R. (1996). Legitimating the Chinese economic reform: A rhetoric of myth and orthodoxy. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Kluver, R. (Ed.). (2004). Political communication in Asia ［Special issue］. Asian Journal of Communication, 14(2), 117226. 

Kluver, R., & Powers, J. H. (Eds.) (1999). Civic discourse, civil society, and Chinese communities. Stamford, CT: Ablex.

Lu, X. (1998). Rhetoric in ancient China, fifth to third century B.C.E.: A comparison of classical Greek rhetoric. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press.

Lu, X. (2004). Rhetoric of the Chinese cultural revolution: Impacts on Chinese thought, culture, and communication. Columbia, NC: The University of South Carolina Press.

Lu, X., Jia, W., & Heisey, D. R. (Eds.) (2002). Chinese communication studies: Contexts and comparisons. Westport, CT: Ablex. 

Lum, C. M. K. (1996). In search of a voice: Karaoke and the construction of identity in Chinese America. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. 

Wang, M.L. (1999). The Dust That Never Settles: The Taiwan Independence Campaign and U.S.China Relations. Lanham, MD: University of Press of America.

Wu, D. (in press). Discourses of Cultural China in the Globalizing Age. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.

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